Discussing Valentine and I Wouldnt Thank You for a Valentine Essay

Discussing Valentine and I Wouldn't Thank You for a Valentine For this poetry assignment I will be discussing the poems â€Å"Valentine† by Carol Ann Duffy and â€Å" I Wouldn’t Thank You for a Valentine† by Liz Lochhead. The poets have similar views about relationships but express these views in contrasting ways. In order to analyse their contrasting styles it would be beneficial to look at their backgrounds. Carol Ann Duffy was born in Glasgow, Scotland in 1955 but was brought up in Stafford, England. She worked as a free-lance writer in East London, and then she moved to Manchester where she currently teaches creative writing at the Metropolitan University. Collections include â€Å"Standing Female Nude† and â€Å"Selling Manhattan†. Liz Lochhead was also born in Scotland in 1947. She is a well-known Scottish poet, dramatist and performance artist. She began as a lecturer in fine art, but became a full time writer in the 70’s. Collections include â€Å"Memo for spring† and â€Å"The Grimm Sisters†. Both these poets’ backgrounds and upbringings are represented as Liz Lochhead uses Scottish dialectal words and phrases while Carol Duffy does not. Lochhead uses words such as â€Å"auld† and â€Å"canny†. This is not reflected in Carol Ann Duffy’s poem. This is possibly because she was brought up in England so had forgotten the Scottish dialect. The structure of â€Å"Valentine† by Carol Ann Duffy is not that of a regular poem. It is written in free verse and there is no obvious rhyme scheme or rhythm. The lines and stanzas are all completely different and there seems to be no pattern. This gives the poem a more personal touch and possibly shows that the poem was heartfelt and these thoughts were written down as the poet thought them. The lines... ...ould possibly offend a female reader is she is disapproving these ideas- when another lady may love it. For example if a man bought his girlfriend a diamond ring and proposed , Liz Lochhead is rejecting this idea â€Å"If you sent me a solitaire and promises solemn†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦you’d entirely fail to charm me , in fact I’d detest it†. This may put some people off this poem if they find these things sentimental. I find that I relate with Carol Ann Duffy’s â€Å"Valentine† better than â€Å" I wouldn’t thank you for a Valentine† because it has deeper meaning and seems to be more serious and has really came from the heart. Liz Lochhead’s poem still shows true feeling but she doesn’t present it as well as Carol Ann Duffy. Some people may look at â€Å"Valentine† and laugh because the poet is comparing love to an onion but when you read the comparisons they are very true and meaningful.

Early Childhood Intervention Services on Social Performance Essay

Based on many researches, surveys, and studies conducted recently, the early intensive intervention method showed a significant outcome for children having autism. The behavioral approach as intervention on preschoolers with the said disorder showed an affirmative short- and long-term effect (Anderson, Avery, DiPietro, Edwards, & Christian, 1987; Fenske, Zalenski, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1985; McEachin, Smith, & OI, 1993). It was said that results showed a partial to nearly complete recovery from symptoms of autism where the most hopeful and positive result suggests a nearly 50% recovery through intensive early intervention (Handleman, Harris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991; Hoyson, 1984; Lord & Schopler, 1989; Lovaas, 1987; Sheinkopf & Siegel, 1998). The reported improvement was based on the outcomes from â€Å"standardized pre-post test scores† and at times, was based on behavioral outcomes (Handleman, Harris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991; Hoyson, 1984; Lord & Schopler, 1989; Lovaas, 1987; Sheinkopf & Siegel, 1998). Also, in contrast to the previous approximations that implied only 50% of all children have a chance to learn to use â€Å"functional speech†, more recent approximations as based from participating children under early intervention showed at least 85% to 90% of these children can utilize the functional speech if intervention begins in the preschool stage (Koegel, 2000). The intricacy in terms of mutual social interactions involved in autism disorders paved way to the need of early identification of this disorder to children because of the significant advantages that resulted if early intervention is performed. It is also this same complex nature on the social feature of autism that led to formulation of early intervention programs. But to date, there are few intervention programs that focus on the enhancement of social interactions to peer groups and siblings since most programs formulated were on â€Å"child-adult† interactions (Koegel, Koegel, & Frea, 2001). There is also the inadequate outcome of these programs on the child’s â€Å"true† functioning in his or her natural environment such as social and behavioral improvements because most outcomes are based on the alterations of the child’s IQ scores and post-intervention assignments (Koegel, Koegel, & Smith, 1997). It was also noted that few assessment studies were conducted on the consequences or results of early intervention programs on autistic children less than three years of age since the knowledge of possibility for practitioners to diagnose autism prior to age three was only recent. CHAPTER 1 The Historical Viewpoint behind Early Childhood Intervention Programs The concept that brain development can be manipulated during the early childhood period necessitates the need for early treatment or intervention of autism since this imposes a greater chance of success and the possibility of a long-term treatment being prevented and reduced (Ornitz, 1973). The trainings in communication, social learning, and self-help skills from the family, school, community, peers, and group can further help autistic children on their social and emotional development. In an early intervention program, the factors being evaluated that become indicator if improvement occurred are age and IQ. There are studies showing that the incidence of a higher IQ and an earlier age at the start of intervention is a positive predictor of better chances of recovery and better outcomes (Gabriel, Hill, Pierce, Rogers, & Wehner, 2001; Handleman, Harris, Celiberti, Lilleheht, & Tomchek, 1991). Recently, the recognized predictor of intervention outcome in the language and peer aspect is the stage of the child with autism on peer social avoidance after under intervention program for six months (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001). Peer social avoidance is described as the frequency of the child’s avoidance near peers. Some studies showed a noteworthy connection of the child’s use of joint attention behaviors and later communicative language improvement (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). These joint attention behaviors include eye gaze alternation and pointing. There is also a study demonstrating that child initiations anticipate very high favorable treatment outcomes (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). Child initiations are defined as the start of a new interaction or changing where the interaction is headed for. These three characteristics namely peer avoidance, joint attention, and initiations are described in nature as exceedingly analogous. They are also called as intervention target behaviors. Before early intervention or treatment services are done, a proper and thorough evaluation of the child with autism should be conducted to identify the appropriate approach to conduct (Shackelford, 2002). First, this assessment should be performed by a trained staff to work on a suitable methods and procedures to be followed. Secondly, it should be based on â€Å"informed clinical opinion† from skilled medical professional for the said specialization. And lastly, there should be a review of the relevant records that would be applicable in evaluating the child’s current health and medical history and child’s level of functioning on the critical development areas such as cognitive, physical (including vision and hearing, communication, social or emotional, and adaptive aspects (Shackelford, 2002). As defined, the term â€Å"early intervention† generally refers to program options for the child with autism at six years of age and below (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). There are many described and formulated different early intervention options specifically center-based programs for children with an array of developmental delays, conventional and expert preschool programs, center-based programs specializing in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), home-based programs on a certain therapy approach, specific therapies from particular clinics, agencies that organize the early intervention personnel to visit the child’s home on a regular or semi-regular basis or outreach service, and programs that are investigated and organized with parents (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). There are many different types of services offered under the early intervention program. These are family support services, funded specialist programs, non-funded specialist programs, specific therapies, alternative therapies, and behavioral assistance services. Many family support services are available (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). Example is the â€Å"Early Childhood Intervention Services† from the Department of Human Services that funds support programs like â€Å"Early Choices† and â€Å"Making a Difference† for a successful implementation of these programs. The local councils can also render this support service as they are funded too to provide such (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). The support and information service under family support services can help families through immediate guidance, sensible and emotional support, and provision of necessary information regarding autism through library, information packages and tip sheets, and published magazines (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). The funded specialist programs are funded under the Department of Human Services purposely for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). These are center-based programs and outreach programs (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). But still, funding is greatly limited and these funded programs are only available to offer services just a not so many hours per week. Outreach programs are where trained personnel visit the patient in his or her home, or are community based services such as child care or preschool for autistic children. The non-funded specialist programs are programs that do not receive funding from the federal government (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). Example of this is the Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). The ABA is a home-based therapy that is structured in pattern to the work of Dr. Ivar Lovaas (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). The format of this program is one-to-one instruction, and support and strengthening. But an ABA trained teacher or psychologist is the only one certified to develop and supervise the program. On the other hand, only the parent and/or trained ABA therapists can carry out the teaching conferences. It is known that ABA program outcomes are positive but still, as usual, the outcomes vary from child to child. The only possible disadvantages being seen are on the financial and time viewpoints, that is, it is expensive and not all families can afford it (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). Another type of service for early intervention is the conduction of specific therapies. These trained therapists are those already skilled in executing therapies in relation to autism (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). These are the psychologists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, early intervention teachers, physiotherapists, music therapists, and dance and movement therapists. Most of these therapists are in private practice and have explicit professional fees. Some families are able to secure funding from support programs while others have to pay it on their own. In year 2006, the federal government tried to include mental health conditions in Medicare insurances to help families to lessen expenditures if therapy is the proper approach to the autism condition of the child (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). The identified alternative therapies are those treatments or approaches that showed constant positive outcomes (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). These are usually the educationally and/or behaviorally based programs (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). These programs are intensive, planned, ordered, and long-standing. There is no instant approach. The behavioral assistance programs are more often than not where parents ask for help (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). In view thereof, Gateways Support Services developed an interactive website with a large data bank as guidance for these parents (â€Å"Early Intervention†, 2007). Researchers and educators have debated the question of how communication goals and objectives for children with autism and related disabilities should be derived. The perspective espoused by traditional behavioral programs has been to establish goals and objectives a priori (Lovaas, 1987). Behavioral discrete-trial programs begin with general compliance training to get a child to sit in a chair, look at the clinician, and imitate nonverbal behavior in response to verbal commands. Speech is taught as a verbal behavior, and objectives are targeted beginning with verbal imitation, following one-step commands, receptive discrimination of body parts, objects, person names and pictures, and expressive labeling in response to questions. Later, language objectives include prepositions, pronouns, same or different and yes or no. More contemporary behavioral approaches have developed goals for outcomes from a functional assessment. Goals and objectives are individualized, based on a child’s repertoire of communicative behaviors, teaching functional equivalents of challenging behavior, and addressing the child’s individual needs. The functional emphasis focuses on goals that affect a child’s access to choices of activities in which to participate, opportunities for social interaction, and community settings (Brown, 2006). Contemporary behavioral programs emphasize teaching communication skills so that greater access is provided to a variety of people, places and events, thereby enhancing the quality of life of children with autistic spectrum disorders. The perspective espoused by developmentally oriented approaches has been to focus on the communicative meaning of behaviors and to target goals and objectives that enhance a child’s communicative competence by moving the child along a developmental progression (Ornitz, 1973). Contemporary developmentalists begin with social-communicative goals, including gaze to regulate interaction, sharing positive affect, communicative functions, and gestural communication. Language goals are mapped onto social communication skills and are guided by a developmental framework (Koegel, Koegel, & Frea, 2001). Developmental perspective usually guides the goal-setting in an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) intervention. Beukelman and Mirenda (1998) state that the goals of an AAC intervention are to assist individuals with severe communication disorders to become communicatively competent in the present, with the view toward meeting their future communication needs (Lovaas, 1987). One major purpose of communication assessment is to document change as an outcome measure of treatment. However, most formal or standardized language assessment measures focus primarily on language form and rely on elicited responses. Because language impairments associated with autism are most apparent in social-communicative or pragmatic aspects of language, formal assessment instruments can provide information about only a limited number of aspects of communication for children with autism (Shackelford, 2002). Formal language measures are especially imprecise in measuring nonverbal aspects of communication and therefore are not sufficient, particularly for low-functioning children with autism. In many situations, the tests used for pre- and post-assessment are different, due to the child’s increasing age, making interpretation of results difficult. Another major purpose of assessment is to provide information for educational planning that can be directly translated into goals, strategies, and outcome measures for communication enhancement. Several communication abilities have been identified as important to assess for children with autism like use of eye gaze and facial expression for social referencing and to regulate interaction, range of communicative functions expressed, rate of communicating, use of gestures and vocal/verbalizations, use of repair strategies, understanding of conventional meanings, and ability to engage in conversation (Shackelford, 2002). It is pointed out that communicative abilities of children with autism should be documented in natural communicative exchanges, with a child’s symbolic abilities serving as a developmental frame of reference (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). To supplement formal measures, the systematic use of informal procedures to assess language and communication is needed. In order to gather an accurate picture of the communication and symbolic abilities of children with autism, a combination of assessment strategies has been recommended that includes interviewing significant others (i. e. , parents, teachers) and observing in everyday situations to find out how a child communicates in the home, classroom, and other daily settings (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). Although there is consensus on the importance of enhancing communication abilities for children with autism, intervention approaches vary greatly, and some even appear to be diametrically opposed (Koegel, 2000). The methodological rigor in communication intervention studies in terms of internal and external validity and measures of generalization has been stronger than in many other areas of autism intervention studies. Nevertheless, there have been relatively few prospective studies with controls for maturation, expectancy, or experimenter artifacts. The strongest studies in terms of internal validity have been multiple baseline, ABAB, or similar designs that have included controls for blindness of evaluations (Koegel, 2000). There have been almost no studies with random assignment, although about 70 percent of the studies included well-defined cohorts of adequate sample size or replication across three or more subjects in single subject designs. A substantial proportion of communication interventions have also included some assessment of generalization, though most often not in a natural setting (Koegel, 2000). In order to examine the critical elements of treatment programs that affect the speech, language, and communication skills of children with autism. It is then useful to characterize the active ingredients of treatment approaches along a continuum—from traditional, discrete trial approaches to more contemporary behavioral approaches that used naturalistic language teaching techniques to developmentally oriented approaches (Koegel, 2000). The earliest research efforts at teaching speech and language to children with autism used massed discrete trial methods to teach verbal behavior by building labeling vocabulary and simple sentences. Lovaas (1987) provided the most detailed account of the procedures for language training using discrete trial approaches. Outcomes of discrete trial approaches have included improvements in IQ scores, which are correlated with language skills, and improvements in communication domains of broader measures, such as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (McEachin, Smith, & OI, 1993). A limitation of a discrete trial approach in language acquisition is the lack of spontaneity and generalization. Lovaas (1987) stated that â€Å"the training regime†¦its use of ‘unnatural’ reinforcers, and the like may have been responsible for producing the very situation-specific, restricted verbal output which we observed in many of our children†. In a review of research on discrete trial approaches, Koegel (2000) noted that â€Å"not only did language fail to be exhibited or generalize to other environments, but most behaviors taught in this highly controlled environment also failed to generalize†. There is now a large body of empirical support for more contemporary behavioral approaches using naturalistic teaching methods that demonstrate efficacy for teaching not only speech and language, but also communication. According to Koegel 2000, there are many approaches that could be considered that include natural language paradigms (Koegel et al. , 1987), incidental teaching (Hart, 1985; McGee et al. , 1985; McGee et al. , 1999), time delay and milieu intervention (Charlop et al. , 1985; Charlop and Trasowech, 1991; Hwang and Hughes, 2000; Kaiser, 1993; Kaiser et al. , 1992), and pivotal response training (Koegel, 1995; Koegel et al. , 1998). These approaches use systematic teaching trials that have several common active ingredients: they are initiated by the child and focus on the child’s interest; they are interspersed and embedded in the natural environment; and they use natural reinforcers that follow what the child is trying to communicate. Only a few studies, all using single-subject designs, have compared traditional discrete trial with naturalistic behavioral approaches. These studies have reported that naturalistic approaches are more effective at leading to generalization of language gains to natural contexts (Koegel 2000). There are numerous intervention approaches based on a developmental framework. While there are many different developmental programs, a common feature of developmental approaches is that they are child-directed. The environment is arranged to provide opportunities for communication, the child initiates the interaction or teaching episode, and the teacher or communicative partner follows the child’s lead by being responsive to the child’s communicative intentions, and imitating or expanding the child’s behavior. Although the empirical support for developmental approaches is more limited than for behavioral approaches, there are several treatment studies that provide empirical support for language outcomes using specific strategies built on a developmental approach providing the largest case review. Developmental approaches share many common active ingredients with contemporary naturalistic behavioral approaches and are compatible along most dimensions. Many researches had been done on the effectiveness of â€Å"early intervention† because a proper selection of goal when dealing the autistic spectrum disorder should be done since the disorder is characterized of many complexities that treating it also involves critical selection of approach. In general, it was shown that researches on these intervention programs had focused on the effectiveness of the programs and not the appropriateness of different goals. For example is knowing a certain intervention program to be effective but the parent and child had to travel across town once a week for the said program or the child is taken out from class in order to be treated by his therapist. Educational objectives must be based on specific behaviors targeted for planned interventions. However, one of the questions that arises repeatedly, both on a theoretical and on a clinical basis, is how specific a link has to be between a long-term goal and a behavior targeted for intervention. Some targeted behaviors, such as toilet training or acquisition of functional spoken language, provide immediately discernible practical benefits for a child and his or her family. However, in many other cases, both in regular education and specialized early intervention, the links between the objectives used to structure what a child is taught and the child’s eventual independent, socially responsible functioning are much less obvious. This is particularly the case for preschool children, for whom play and manipulation of toys (e. g. , matching, stacking of blocks) are primary methods of learning and relating to other children. Often, behaviors targeted in education or therapy are not of immediate practical value but are addressed because of presumed links to overall educational goals. The structuring of activities in which a child can succeed and feel successful is an inherent part of special education. Sometimes the behavior is one component of a series of actions that comprise an important achievement. Breaking down a series of actions into components can facilitate learning. Thus, a preschool child may be taught to hold a piece of paper down with one hand while scribbling with another. This action is a first step in a series of tasks designed to help the child draw and eventually write. Other behaviors, or often classes of behaviors, have been described as â€Å"pivotal behaviors† in the sense that their acquisition allows a child to learn many other skills more efficiently (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). Schreibman and the Koegels and their colleagues have proposed a specific treatment program for children with autism: pivotal response treatment. It includes teaching children to respond to natural reinforcers and multiple cues, as well as other â€Å"pivotal† responses. These are key skills that allow better access to social information. The idea of â€Å"pivotal skills† to be targeted as goals may also hold for a broad range of behaviors such as imitation (Stone, 1997; Rogers and Pennington, 1991), maintaining proximity to peers (Hanson and Odom, 1999), and learning to delay gratification (understanding â€Å"first do this, then you get to do that†). Longitudinal research has found that early joint attention, symbolic play, and receptive language are predictors of long-term outcome (Siller and Sigman, 2002). Although the research to date has been primarily correlational, one inference has been that if interventions succeed in modifying these key behaviors, more general improvements will occur as well (Kasari, 2000). Another explanation is that these behaviors are early indicators of the child’s potential developmental trajectory. Sometimes goals for treatment and education involve attempting to limit and treat the effects of one aspect of autism, with the assumption that such a treatment will allow a child to function more competently in a range of activities. For example, a number of different treatment programs emphasize treating the sensory abnormalities of autism, with the implication that this will facilitate a child’s acquisition of communication or social skills (e. g. , auditory integration; sensory integration). For many interventions, supporting these links through research has been difficult. There is little evidence to support identifiable links between general treatment of a class of behaviors (e. g. , sensory dysfunction) and improvements in another class of behaviors (e. g. , social skills), especially when the treatment is carried out in a different context from that in which the targeted behaviors are expected to appear. However, there are somewhat different examples in other areas of education and medicine in which interventions have broad effects on behavior. One example is the effect of vigorous exercise on general behavior in autism (Koegel, Koegel, Shoshan, & McNerney, 1999). In addition, both desensitization and targeted exercise in sports medicine and physical therapy often involve working from interventions carried out in one context to generalization to more natural circumstances. Yet, in both of these cases, the shift from therapeutic to real-life contexts is planned explicitly to occur within a relatively brief period of time. At this time, there is no scientific evidence of this kind of link between specifically-targeted therapies and general improvements in autism outside the targeted areas. Until information about such links becomes available, this lack of findings is relevant to goals, because it suggests that educational objectives should be tied to specific, real-life contexts and behaviors with immediate meaning to the child. Because the range of outcomes for children with autistic spectrum disorders is so broad, the possibility of relatively normal functioning in later childhood and adulthood offers hope to many parents of young children. Although recent literature has conveyed more modest claims, the possibility of permanent â€Å"recovery† from autism, in the sense of eventual attainment of language, social and cognitive skills at, or close to, age level, has been raised in association with a number of educational and treatment programs (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001). Natural history studies have revealed that there are a small number of children who have symptoms of autism in early preschool years who do not have these symptoms in any obvious form in later years. Whether these improvements reflect developmental trajectories of very mildly affected children or changes in these trajectories (or more rapid movement along a trajectory) in response to treatment (Lovaas, 1987) is not known. However, as with other developmental disabilities, the core deficits in autism have generally been found to persist in some degree in most persons with autistic spectrum diagnoses. There is no research base explaining how â€Å"recovery† might come about or which behaviors might mediate general change in diagnosis or cognitive level (Ingersoll, Schreibman, & Stahmer, 2001). Although there is evidence that interventions lead to improvements and that some children shift specific diagnoses within the spectrum and change in severity of cognitive delay in the preschool years, there is not a simple, direct relationship between any particular current intervention and â€Å"recovery† from autism. Because there is always room for hope, recovery will often be a goal for many children, but in terms of planning services and programs, educational objectives must describe specific behaviors to be acquired or changed. Research on outcomes (or whether goals of independence and responsibility have been attained) can be characterized by whether the goal of an intervention is broadly defined (e. g. , â€Å"best outcome†) or more narrowly defined (e. g. , increasing vocabulary, increasing peer-directed social behavior); whether the study design involves reporting results in terms of individual or group changes; and whether goals are short term (i. e. , to be achieved in a few weeks or months) or long term (i. e. , often several years). A large body of single-subject research has demonstrated that many children make substantial progress in response to specific intervention techniques in relatively short time periods (e. g. , several months). These gains occur in many specific areas, including social skills, language acquisition, nonverbal communication, and reductions of challenging behaviors. Often the most rapid gains involve increasing the frequency of a behavior already in the child’s repertoire, but not used as broadly as possible (e. g. , increasing use of words) (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). In single-subject reports, changes in some form are almost always documented within weeks, if not days, after the intervention has begun. Studies over longer periods of time have documented that joint attention, early language skills, and imitation are core deficits that are the hallmarks of the disorder, and are predictive of longer-term outcome in language, adaptive behaviors, and academic skills. However, a causal relationship between improvements in these behaviors as a result of treatment and outcomes in other areas has not yet been demonstrated. Many treatment studies report post intervention placement as an outcome measure (Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari, 1990). Successful participation in regular education classrooms is an important goal for some children with autism. However, its usefulness as an outcome measure is limited because placement may be related to many variables other than the characteristics of a child (such as prevailing trends in inclusion, availability of other services, and parents’ preferences). The most commonly reported outcome measure in group treatment studies of children with autism has been IQ scores (Lord & Schopler, 1989). Studies have reported substantial changes in IQ scores in a surprisingly large number of children in intervention studies and in longitudinal studies in which children received nonspecific interventions. However, even in the treatment studies that have shown the largest gains, children’s outcomes have been variable, with some children making great progress and others showing very small gains. Overall, while much evidence exists that education and treatment can help children attain short-term goals in targeted areas, gaps remain in addressing larger questions of the relationship between particular techniques and both general and specific changes (Lord & Schopler, 1989). The child with autism is also protected in the federal state law. These are the Public Law 108-77 also called Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 and Public Law 105-17 also called Individuals with Disabilities Act or IDEA of 1997. This mandates the major care provider to refer the child with autism and the family to an early intervention service. It was stated that every state has an early intervention program and must make it available to children from birth to three years of age, thus, autistic children are covered under this law. Examples of these program are behavioral methods, early developmental education, communication skills, occupational and physical therapy, and structured social play.

Controversial Contributions to Political Thought Made by...

Justice and care One of the most momentous and controversial contributions to political thought made by feminism in recent decades involves the work of Carol Gilligan, who developed the claim that there exists an approach to morality and social relations that contrasts sharply with that which is based on justice and individual rights of the sort characteristic of mainstream (liberal) theory. The ‘care’ perspective – a moral orientation that focuses on the value of maintaining relations, acting on interpersonal responsibilities, expressing appropriate emotion and affect, and so on – has been put forward as a moral orientation uniquely connected with the experience and psychology of women, but which has been relegated to secondary status in traditional theories of moral development. Gilligan’s work famously suggested that women tend to think more in terms of care and responsibility when considering a moral problem than in terms of impersonal rights and justice, and tha t moral and political principles which were expressed in the latter terms have essentially silenced women’s voices (Gilligan 1982, Gilligan et al. 1988, Brown and Gilligan 1992). Gilligan questioned the dominant view of psychological development which placed the ability to think in terms of universal, impersonal, principles at the apex of moral thinking, claiming that this reflected the male tendency to value separation, objectivity, and autonomy over connectedness and relationships. Normative principlesShow MoreRelatedEssay on Shirley Chisholm880 Words   |  4 Pagesto Congress was born in Brooklyn on November 30, 1924. She is one of the most profound and admired women that challenged society not only as a woman, but a woman of color. She made many contributions to the womens movement and society. 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As with any societal group, their cultural contributions have continued to expand and develop along with their newly acquired political finesse, giving the gay community a sense of pride in its artistic and literary achievements. Since educationRead MoreThe Feminist And Reality Theory : Like Water For Chocolate4125 Words   |  17 Pagestherapy diversified to include issues like eating disorders, trauma and abuse, and body image. As a therapeutic model, feminist therapy is influenced by a number of philosophies, Rogerian, Adlerian , and Gestalt therapies, as well as several kinds of feminism, among them (Corey, 2013). Main Concept Feminist Therapy is based on the idea that no one gender should make decisions based off of stereotypical roles society has set. There are four main philosophies of feminists with differing goals in therapy

The Importance of Free Will in A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess Free Essay Example, 1750 words

Choice, " rumbled a rich deep gloss. I divided it belonged to the prison charlie. "He has no real choice, has he? Self-interest, fear of physical pain, drove him to that grotesque act of self-abasement. Its insincerity was clearly to be seen. He ceases to be a wrongdoer. He ceases also to be a creature capable of moral choice. " "These are subtleties, " like smiled Dr. Brodsky. "We are not concerned with motive, with the higher ethics. We are concerned only with cutting down crime - " "And, " chipped in this bolshy well-dressed Minister, "with relieving the ghastly congestion in our prisons. " (Burgess, 1986, p. 72) Burgess portrays a dystopian future reality, emphasizing the important issues in contemporary modern English society in the 20th Century. These are similar to the themes addressed by George Orwell in 1984, fearing the mind-controlling aspects of totalitarian government as it developed from mass-media and popular democracy, but Burgess also highlights the way that style, fashion, advertising, and trends reinforce this in society. Both Alex and the prison chaplain in the novel are portrayed as uncritical and selfish, filled with different types of social programming - not as heroic figures and models of admiration, but as humans who have lost their own ability to think for themselves and to see what is really valuable and true in the society. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Free Will in A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page I know. " "You've made others suffer, " said this Joe. "It's only right you should suffer proper. I've been told everything that you've done, sitting here at night around the family table, and pretty shocking it was to listen to. Made me really sick a lot of it did. " "I wish, " I said, "I was back in the prison. Dear old Staja as it was. I'm trying off now, " I said. "You won't ever viddy me no more. I'll make my own way, thank you very much. Let it lie heavy on your consciences. "

Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa - 1383 Words

Bulimia Nervosa â€Å"Up to 30 million people of all ages and genders suffer from an eating disorder† (Wade, Keski- Rahkonen, Hudson, 1995). There are many factors which contribute to the development of eating disorders including â€Å"biology, emotional health, and societal expectation, and other issues† (â€Å"Diseases and Conditions Bulimia nervosa†). One of the most prominent eating disorders in America and around the globe has been around since the Middle Ages: â€Å"Bulimia is first reliably described among the some of the wealthy in the Middle Ages who would vomit during meals so they could consume more† (â€Å"A History of Eating Disorders†). Today bulimia is more prevalent and is predicted to affect around â€Å"4% of women in the United States† (â€Å"Eating Disorder Statistics and Research†). In 1979, Gerald Russell published a description of bulimia nervosa. It was the first description of bulimia ever published. Only a year later in 198 0 bulimia appeared for the first time in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III. Bulimia has come to be known as bulimia nervosa for its similarity to another eating disorder known as anorexia nervosa, and also known as the binge- purge disorder for its cycle of bingeing and purging. Like anorexia, bulimia is normally developed during adolescences or early adulthood and â€Å"both are characterized by severely restricting food consumption.† (â€Å"Bulimia Nervosa†) However, unlike anorexia, bulimia is also characterized by binge eating. BingeShow MoreRelatedEating Disorders : Bulimia Nervosa1382 Words   |  6 Pagesto turn to eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa. During the time I was bulimic, I remember watching movies and fashion shows, then looking at myself in the mirror and thinking â€Å"I’m never going to be skinny enough†. I now realize how wrong I was for punishing myself like that and how much damage I was doing to my body. That’s why I think it’s important for everyone to read about bulimia, because this disorder may go unobserved for years and sometimes, it can be too late. Bulimia can be veryRead MoreBulimia Nervosa Is An Eating Disorder1420 Words   |  6 PagesBulimia nervosa is an eating disorder that consists of the distortion on one’s body image and an obsessive desire to lose weight. It involves binge eating which is the rapid ingesting of large amounts of food, commonly followed by vomiting, fasting, or purging that is accompanied by depression. An individual with bulimia will attempt to avoid weight gain by vomiting or using laxatives, diuretics, or enemas. It is common to see a bulimic individual restrict their food intake or exercise excessivelyRead MoreBulimia Nervosa Is An Eating Disorder Essay2102 Words   |  9 PagesBulimia nervosa is an eating disorder that is most commonly found in women of teenage or young adult age (Herzog, D. B. (1982). This di sorder can have very serious effects on the body. Some of these physical effects include â€Å"dental problems, inflamed esophagus, EEG abnormalities, abdominal or urinary disturbances, and changes in blood sugar level.† (Muuss, R. E. (1986). ) The mental and emotional tolls of this disorder can be equally as dangerous. According to Pompili, M., Girardi, P., Ruberto, ARead MoreEating Disorders : Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa1303 Words   |  6 Pagesincreasing number of cases of eating disorders. According to a National Institute of Mental Health article (Eating Disorders, 2016), an eating disorder is an illness that causes physical disturbance to your everyday diet. A person who is stressed or concerned about their body weight is a sign that he or she might have an eating disorder. Out of all the eating disorders, the two most common are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder where people, who are underweightRead MoreEating Disorders And The Treatment Of Bulimia Nervosa Essay914 Words   |  4 PagesFamilies in the Treatment of Adolescent Bulimia Nervosa Using Family-Based Treatment? Uchenna Obiagwu University of North Texas Are Single-Parent Families Different from Two-Parent Families in the Treatment of Adolescent Bulimia Nervosa Using Family-Based Treatment? A research was conducted on forty-one 17 years old female adolescent with bulimia nervosa. The purpose of the study was to examine whether family play a vital role for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. It also examine how family involvementRead MoreEating Disorders : Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa1830 Words   |  8 Pagesneeded to be thin. She would do all she can to get thin. She would look in the mirror and see herself as being fat and ugly. So she chooses not to eat or she binge eat and then purge. Now Addie has what is called an eating disorder. An eating disorder is can be described as abnormal eating to alter the body image due to psychological reasons. According to Janet Belsky, it can also be classified as a pathological obsession with getting and staying thin. (Belsky 252) They are associated with a wide rangeRead MoreEating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa2131 Words   |  9 PagesUsing the cases of two eating disorders (anorexia nervosa and bul imia nervosa), or obesity, one can determine that health and illnesses are just as much of a societal and cultural issue, as they are a medical issue. Eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimia are both mental illnesses. Anorexia nervosa involves starving oneself to avoid gaining weight, while bulimia involves binge eating followed by purging to avoid weight gain (Gerber and Macionis 2012). Both of these disorders stem from a fear ofRead MoreEating Disorders : Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia, And Binge Eating1453 Words   |  6 PagesIn the United States of America 20 million women, and 10 million men suffer from a clinically significant eating disorder at some time in their life. There are three types of eating disorders, Anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and binge eating. Eating disorders can be life-threatening conditions that can affect a person’s physical health, and emotional. Something that serious has people wondering what exactly is causing these people to risk their health o n it? One possibility would be social influencesRead MoreBulimia Nervosa Is A Psychological Eating Disorder, Which1080 Words   |  5 Pages Bulimia Nervosa is a psychological eating disorder, which is considered very dangerous for life. It is described as an abnormal consumption of food in large quantities. After overeating a person has a desire to avoid of gaining weight and can expressly induce vomiting or drink laxatives in order to get rid of the negative consequences of overeating. From psychological point of view Bulimia nervosa is very painful for those who suffer this disease. A bulimic person is well aware that suchRead More The Prevalence Of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, And Binge Eating Disorder1723 Words   |  7 PagesPrevalence Of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, And Binge Eating Disorder How prevalent is anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and other eating disorders? Without the knowledge of research, one is likely to think eating disorders are quite prevalent in society today. However, research proves that eating disorders, in general, are not as prevalent as one might think without any knowledge of the subject. Prevalence of an eating disorder refers to the number of cases of an eating disorder within a population

Media-Based Anticrime Efforts Free Essays

Today’s prevalent technological innovations contribute to the growing incidents of crime in the United States. This alarming fact has already been brought into the awareness of the National Citizens’ Crime Prevention Campaign and that which the agency has been addressing these days. Majority of NCPC’s campaigns are engaged in preventing crimes that involve the internet crime, bullying, and theft. We will write a custom essay sample on Media-Based Anticrime Efforts or any similar topic only for you Order Now (â€Å"Current Campaigns†) In addition, Court TV’s Choices and Consequences also wishes to help the American society become aware of its ability to prevent crime. Empowering the youth – as its main targeted audience – with the wisdom that they can help prevent crime by being aware that the decisions that they make as adolescents have significant lifetime consequences is what this award-winning program do. (â€Å"Mission†) In my opinion, these crime-fighting organizations are effective with their mission of preventing crimes in the society. Through their programs, the community is provided with sufficient information that strips them off from being ignorant about the most recent crime trends in the society. This information will serve as their weapon in fighting against particular crimes when they encounter them. The use of the various forms of media leaves no man ignorant about serious social issues that directly affect him. Consequently, sometimes, excessive use of media in order to deter crime does not necessarily mean that it initiates fear among the members of the society to commit crime. There are even instances when people are influenced otherwise. Too much information also leads to curiosity – curiosity to do what and how it feels like to do what the law tries hard to prevent from happening. Moreover, though broadcast companies hate to admit it, media sensationalize crime incidents that results to adverse psychological effects among some members of the society. There is moreover a conflicting interest issues in the media’s concern regarding its ability to report and deter crime. The federal government, in its hope to secure the society and prevent crimes from happening utilizes the media in order to popularize its campaigns against crime. Major organizations who are advocates of deterring crime also provides television networks with a large sum of money just to make sure people are aware of the criminal issues that are happening in the society so they can avoid it when in the situation. These huge amounts of money that is at stake here leaves us into doubt whether the media companies are earnest in helping deter crime in the community. References: Current Campaigns. Retrieved from http://www.ncpc.org/newsroom/current-campaigns on Oct.  25, 2007. Mission. Retrieved   on Oct. 25, 2007.    How to cite Media-Based Anticrime Efforts, Essay examples

Collective Security free essay sample

When considering this idea of collective security one cannot view it as a single entity as many derived forms exist. Instead this essay will strive to consider each of these possible derivatives and analyse how this applies to the UN to uncover which one they implement. To discover if collective security is articulated in their aims the UN charter will be examined to see whether it actually does bring about a plausible form of security or whether it lacks in certain areas due to contradiction and its writing being post-war. In addition to this, modern case studies can be used to uncover if the UN has been successful is achieving the aims laid out in the charter or whether they have become dated in today’s global politics. When trying to define this concept of collective security one would think that a clear, simple definition would exist so that upon any discussion of security issues, it would allow the people involved to have a concise understanding of the notion, thus avoiding any ambiguity and confusion. However, as if so often the case, this has been far more challenging to achieve and even ‘academics and so-called experts in legal departments and diplomatic services, are guilty of perpetrating and propagating the confusion surrounding the concept. ’ The problem faced is that the term â€Å"collective security† can be easily broken down into two parts, whereby this idea of â€Å"security† can be viewed as a prevention of any form of conflict that could affect the current state of peace on any level. Collective,† on the other hand, is seen as more than one state acting together to maintain this, through the means of agreeing and adhering to a certain set of rules. Therefore, we could draw the conclusion that the combination of both of these would lead to the understanding that collective security is ‘any multilateral arrangement or action taken in the name of defence, peace and morality. The difficulty faced is that beyond this point of understanding ‘many forms of collective security are possible, varying by the substance of the rules, who determines the rules, and how to enforce these rules’ and so what has spawned from a single concept of security is three varied ideas, namely pure collective security, procedural security and hegemonic collective security, each of which can be analyzed accordingly. Pure collective security is seen as ‘an agreement among all states to protect their territorial integrity by establishing a legal obligation to punish those that start interstate wars. This form is seen as a legal obligation to protect the sovereignty of all states and ensures that even the most powerful do not stand as a threat to the territorial integrity of others, through the use of punishment if rules are broken. Critiquing of collective security by political theorists is no surprise, however, when realists go after this concept their focus shift s towards the idea of pure security, as they believe that ‘institutions do not have a significant independent effect on state behaviour. They put forward the argument that the pursuit of collective security creates a link between national and international security and so if they were to act on the belief that an attack on one equates to an attack on all it would mean damaging their own national security for a conflict that could be strategically irrelevant to them and possibly launch minor wars onto the global stage. In addition to this pure security would mean that all rule breakers would have to be punished, even if they were friends, something realists see as highly unlikely to take place as this would break ties with the countries allies and possibly lead to isolation. Now, procedural security, on the other hand, differs from pure collective security as it is seen as a political, rather than legal, obligation that ‘establishes political institutions to maintain international security, not legal institutions to enforce international law. The problem is that tensions can easily arise between states as the interests of the great powers are protected while they are not held accountable to community rules, such as the blatant human rights violations in Chechnya by Russia which, as one reporter noted, were ‘terrifying acts of murder. ’ The final form of collective security, which is based around the most hierarchical set-up, known as hegemonic is ‘an arrangement in which th e most powerful state claims the right to unilaterally enforce agreed-upon rules. The predicament of pursuing this type of collective security is that states can be easily swung into two mind frames, either that they accept the regulations put forth by the state as they see it as a genuine attempt to uphold international security, or, as is most often the case, they view it as an attempt by the state to further its own personal objectives thus leading to their support being withheld and security being replaced with suspicion and hostility. As realists critique the pure aspect of collective security radicals focus on procedural and hegemonic, as their fundamental belief is that collective security ‘is a tool of powerful states to impose their interests on everyone else. Their main critiquing arguments centre around the Security Council, one of six principal organs of the United Nations which is ‘arguably its most influential’ with its function being best defined in the UN charter as aiming to ‘promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the worlds human and economic resources’ The radicals view the security council as a part of the UN that only defends the desires of its permanent members and grants veto powers to states so that they can avoid reprimand for the breaking of rules. As is seen radicals draw attention to the political aspects of collective security, and while they would agree that the security council does follow the principles of the UN and does not have total free reign they do ‘presume there are no legal limits on the security council. It is purely an instrument of power politics. ’ With this definition of collective security we are now able to examine the set-up of the UN and thus which of these security principles it lends itself to. As mentioned before the UN Charter founded the Security Council to maintain peace and security across the globe. It has 15 members, five of which are permanent and are made up of the international powerhouses of Russia, China, France, the UK and the US with each of these possessing veto powers. The council will not act until 9 out of 15 members are in favour of a decision and none of the permanent members are opposed. What we see here from the established hierarchy and permanent memberships is that a procedural form of collective security has been created whereby each countries political institution is working to try and uphold international peace. However, if one is to fully understand how this principle of collective security is articulated in the aims of the UN it would be best to consider it, for now, in the simplified form, whereby its meaning is ‘an international agency with the capacity to invoke the threat of military sanctions in order to deter contemplated aggression or to defeat attempted aggression. ’ With this in mind we can now turn to the UN charter, a â€Å"constitution† of the United Nations that all members have to abide by, which came into effect on October 24, 1945. It is in this document that we can clearly see the aims of the UN laid out and thus allows us to identify where exactly collective security has been articulated. Article 43 of the charter is a clear example of where this is trying to be achieved as it calls upon ‘all members of the united nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the maintaining international peace and security. The problem that the UN has faced is that the members have continually failed to meet these responsibilities and so the Security Council has repeatedly found itself under resourced when trying to fulfil its security obligations, as the historian Inis Claude writes ‘the capacity to assemble a United Nations force that will intimidate such a state or nip its aggression in the bud – is simply not available. ’ One historian who has put forward some highly thought provoking works on collective security is man called Naidu who, based on the Claude model, has drawn what he considers to be the ideal system of collective security. While not all aspects of his system can be examined in this essay due to word constraints, certainly a number of them can be considered and then by carrying out careful analysis it can be seen exactly if the UN has been able to articulate his ideas through the articles of the charter. To begin with the prohibition of arbitrary force is considered and is obviously a key part of the charter with Article 2 stating â€Å"all members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means† and that they will refrain from the threat or use of force. The use of the word force is not explicitly defined in the article, however, it can be assumed that it represents the use of physical or armed force, which means ‘coercion through economic or diplomatic or psychological methods is to be excluded from the scope of the term force. ’ The charter seems to base its aims of maintaining peace around the idea of collective measures, as demonstrated in Article 1, and is best shown in the report by the framers of the UN charter which states that ‘the use of force, therefore, remains legitimate only to back up the decisions of the organization,’ however, contradiction exists when examining the Charter’s stance on self-defence. The right to self-defence is limited by Article 51 to a state only being able to react to armed force but its effectiveness is lost in reality and with this idea of collective self-defence, which ‘is a newcomer to legal terminology and might even be considered a contradiction in terms,’ it allows for states to call to others for help and take action without the approval of the UN. As we see ‘by introducing the concept of self-defence, and especially by legitimizing collective self-defence, the Charter paved the way for the inevitable weakening of the United Nations security system. Another integral part of collective security is this guarantee of deterrence whereby the system should have the power to deter any aggressor by convincing them that their collective force would be far to overpowering. However, as we have seen the creation of a UN army is simply not possible and this therefore means that the system demands a reduct ion in military capabilities of states, something that could be achieved through either worldwide disarmament or arms control. The charter surprisingly does not seem to stress this idea of disarmament as strongly as one would assume and when the initiative is considered it seems to lack any real urgency. The word disarmament is only used twice in the charter and when considering the idea of arms it refers only to regulation rather than control, with only article 26 referring to the suggestion of ‘the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments. This, however, should almost be expected considering the time in history the charter was formed. The makers had just experienced WWII and therefore it is understandable that they would not want to focus on disarmament and instead see that military force would be the only plausible way to maintain international peace. Of course, looking at it now it is clear that their judgment was misleading, as deterrence cannot be achieved if a states national military capabilities are not limited. Now this is not to say that the creators of the charter did not have collective security in mind as ‘the planners of the United Nations were at odds on many questions, but they were in agreement from the outset that the new organization must have the power to maintain the future peace of the world through the use of international force,’ however with modern perspective we see that their way of going about it was not the best path. Overall, what we observe is that the makers of the charter do articulate this idea of collective security in their aims; owever, the running theme appears to be that they are only able to achieve it to a certain extent as ‘the post-war world has not produced the conditions that could have facilitated the translation of the Charter theory of collective enforcement measures into a political theory. ’ While the UN’s charter may not have been capable of achieving ideal collective security it is not fair to fully judge until actu al case studies have been considered to see whether it has been implemented at times that truly call for it. One instance that can be looked at is the Falklands war in 1982. It all began on April 2nd, 1982 when the Argentines landed on the Falklands and, despite diplomatic discussion, refused to remove their military force. For the British this was a blatant violation of international law and due to this their only option was to respond through armed force. If we are to look at this with the idea of collective security in mind one would assume that it would have invoked a response from all members of the UN as an attack on one is an attack on all. This simply was not the case however and many of them decided to refrain from offering help, as it was not a direct concern of theirs. This is an instance in history that is often cited as a limitation by realists because, as mentioned before, they do not believe that a nation would damage its own national security for a conflict that is irrelevant to them. Despite this the UN has been successful at working as a peacekeeping organization with such examples as Cambodia, Yugoslavia and ethnic conflicts. The UN forces in Cyprus and Lebanon have worked together in preventing ethnic conflicts and achieved grand success as ‘ such operations have undoubtedly contributed towards the stabilization of violent ethnic conflicts and have saved lives. To conclude, what can be seen with the UN is that they have been able to partially articulate this idea of collective security into its aims in the charter, thus meaning that the security system at current cannot be considered a fully developed collective security system, as displayed by the Falklands war. Instead, what the world is faced with, at current, is an intermediate o rganization that still does not have the necessary and proper instruments to achieve ideal collective security. With this in mind we see that the United Nations is only able to achieve success within the boundaries of its own limitations. If an ideal system of collective security had been established then incidents such as the Falklands would not occur, however, since this is not the case the UN can only be expected to achieve as far as its restricted aims will allow. One cannot help but wonder if an ideal system of collective security could ever exist in the modern world but the answer to this lies only ‘in the realm of conjecturing on the future of world politics! ’